500 – 1500
The Middle Ages
Faiths, empires, and trade networks spanning the medieval world.
architectureCompletion of the Hagia Sophia537 CE · Constantinople (Istanbul), TurkeyEmperor Justinian completes the Hagia Sophia, a revolutionary cathedral that redefines architectural engineering and Byzantine art.
ArtCreation of Maya Polished Obsidian Mirrorsc. 600 CE · Guatemala (Maya Lowlands)Artisans craft polished obsidian mirrors for divination and ritual use.
ReligionHijra of Prophet MuhammadSeptember 24, 622 CE · Medina, Saudi ArabiaMuhammad migrates to Medina establishing the first Muslim community and calendar.
ArtBurial of the Sutton Hoo Shipc. 625 CE · Suffolk, EnglandAn Anglo-Saxon king is buried with a magnificent helmet and gold artifacts.
WarIslamic Conquest of the Sasanian Empire637 CE · Ctesiphon, Iraq (Persia)Arab Muslim forces defeat the Sasanian Empire at the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah, ending centuries of Persian rule.
ReligionStandardization of the Quranic Textc. 650 CE · Medina (and Damascus), Arabia/SyriaCaliph Uthman commissions the definitive written codex of the Quran.
TechnologyInvention of Greek Fire by Kallinikosc. 673 CE · Constantinople, TurkeyByzantine engineers develop a liquid incendiary weapon that burns on water.
PoliticsRise of Srivijaya as Maritime Hegemon683 CE · Palembang, Sumatra (Modern Indonesia)Srivijaya emerges as the dominant maritime empire controlling the Strait of Malacca.
PoliticsEmperor Xuanzong Ascends the Tang Throne712 CE · Chang'an, ChinaEmperor Xuanzong begins his reign, ushering in the High Tang golden age.
ArtTang Dynasty Golden Age of Poetry and Culturec. 713 CE · Chang'an, ChinaThe Tang Dynasty reaches its cultural zenith in Chang'an, producing legendary poets like Li Bai and Du Fu.
PoliticsFounding of Heian-kyo794 CE · Kyoto, JapanEmperor Kammu moves the capital to Heian-kyo, beginning the Heian period.
PoliticsJayavarman II Declares Khmer Independence802 CE · Phnom Kulen, CambodiaJayavarman II proclaims himself a universal monarch, founding the Khmer Empire.
ReligionEnd of Byzantine Iconoclasm843 CE · Constantinople, TurkeyEmpress Theodora restores the veneration of icons in the Byzantine Empire, ending a century-long theological conflict.
TechnologyDiscovery of Gunpowder by Tang Dynasty Alchemistsc. 850 CE · Chang'an, ChinaTang alchemists accidentally discover gunpowder while seeking an elixir of immortality.
ScienceConstruction of El Caracol Observatory at Chichen Itzac. 850 CE · Chichen Itza, MexicoMaya astronomers build a circular observatory aligned with Venus cycles.
ExplorationViking Settlement of Iceland874 CE · Reykjavik, IcelandNorse explorers led by Ingólfr Arnarson settle Iceland, establishing the first permanent European community in the North Atlantic.
WarViking Siege of Paris885 CE · Paris, FranceViking raiders led by Sigfred besiege Paris for over a year, testing the defenses of West Francia.
DisasterCollapse of Classic Maya Civilizationc. 900 CE · Tikal and Calakmul, Guatemala/MexicoMajor Maya city-states are abandoned due to drought, warfare, and ecological collapse during the Terminal Classic period.
ScienceRefinement of the Astrolabe by Islamic Astronomersc. 900 CE · Baghdad, IraqPersian and Arab scholars perfect the astrolabe for navigation and timekeeping.
DisasterEcological Collapse and Drought Leading to Maya Declinec. 900 CE · Petén Basin, GuatemalaSevere drought and deforestation cause the collapse of Classic Maya civilization.
ExplorationKorean Tribute Trade with China918 CE · Sungnyemun Gate (Kaesong), KoreaGoryeo establishes formal tributary relations with the Song Dynasty.
ArtMacedonian Renaissance in Byzantiumc. 920 CE · Constantinople, TurkeyThe Byzantine Empire experiences a cultural revival with renewed interest in classical learning and artistic production.
medicineEstablishment of the Bimaristan Hospital System in Baghdadc. 982 CE · Baghdad, IraqThe Al-Adudi Hospital introduces specialized wards and medical record-keeping.
PoliticsRajaraja I's Naval Campaigns against the Cholasc. 985 CE · Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, IndiaRajaraja Chola I ascends the throne and initiates a massive naval expansion that will soon dominate the Bay of Bengal.
PoliticsSrivijaya-Song Peace Treaty990 CE · Palembang, Sumatra (Modern Indonesia)Formal diplomatic recognition between Srivijaya and Song China.
WarChola Conquest of Sri Lankac. 993 CE · Anuradhapura, Sri LankaRajaraja Chola launches a massive amphibious invasion of Sri Lanka, defeating the Sinhalese kingdom and annexing the island.
ExplorationLeif Erikson's Voyage to Vinlandc. 1000 CE · L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, CanadaLeif Erikson establishes a short-lived Norse settlement in North America, five centuries before Columbus.
PoliticsSrivijaya at its Zenithc. 1000 CE · Palembang, Sumatra (Modern Indonesia)Srivijaya controls the Strait of Malacca and dominates regional trade.
TechnologyUse of Astrolabes for Celestial Navigation by Arab Sailorsc. 1000 CE · Jeddah, Saudi ArabiaArab navigators utilize refined astrolabes to cross the Indian Ocean.
ArtConsecration of the Brihadeeswarar Templec. 1010 CE · Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, IndiaRajaraja Chola I completes the colossal Brihadeeswarar Temple, an architectural marvel dedicated to Shiva that defines Dravidian style.
ArtCompletion of the Brihadeeswarar Templec. 1010 CE · Thanjavur (modern Tamil Nadu/India)Rajaraja Chola I completes the magnificent Brihadeeswarar Temple, a marvel of Dravidian architecture and engineering.
literatureCreation of the Beowulf Manuscriptc. 1016 CE · England (likely Canterbury or Winchester)A single scribe transcribes the epic poem Beowulf onto parchment.
WarRajendra Chola I's Ganges Expeditionc. 1025 CE · Bengal to Ganges Delta, IndiaRajendra Chola I leads a northern expedition reaching the Ganges River, defeating Pala kings and bringing holy water back to Thanjavur.
WarChola Invasion of Srivijayac. 1025 CE · Palembang, Sumatra, IndonesiaRajendra Chola I launches a naval raid on the Srivijaya Empire, disrupting its control over the Strait of Malacca and securing trade routes.
ExplorationChola Naval Expedition to Southeast Asia1025 CE · Java and Sumatra (Modern Indonesia)Chola fleet raids coastal cities across the archipelago.
WarRajendra Chola I's Expedition to Southeast Asiac. 1025 CE · Kedah (modern Malaysia)Chola Emperor Rajendra I launches a massive naval raid on Srivijaya, projecting Indian power across the Bay of Bengal.
ExplorationChola Naval Expedition Against Srivijaya1025 CE · Palembang, Sumatra, IndonesiaRajaraja Chola I's navy raids Srivijaya to secure Indian Ocean trade routes.
WarMahmud of Ghazni's Sack of Somnathc. 1026 CE · Somnath, Gujarat, IndiaMahmud of Ghazni leads a raid on the Somnath Temple, destroying the structure and looting its immense wealth to fund his empire.
PoliticsPost-Chola War Reorganization1035 CE · Palembang, Sumatra (Modern Indonesia)Srivijaya reorganizes its administration after Chola raids.
DisasterSealing of the Dunhuang Library Cavec. 1035 CE · Dunhuang, ChinaMonks seal a cave containing thousands of ancient manuscripts for protection.
TechnologyMagnetic Compass Application for Navigation in Song Chinac. 1040 CE · Kaifeng, ChinaSong dynasty engineers create the first magnetic compass for maritime navigation.
WarBattle of HastingsOctober 14, 1066 CE · Hastings, EnglandNorman forces defeat Anglo-Saxon army, permanently altering English language and culture.
PoliticsDecline of Srivjaya1079 CE · Palembang, Sumatra (Modern Indonesia)Internal strife and external pressure weaken Srivijaya's control.
CivilizationConstruction of Great Zimbabwec. 1100 CE · Masvingo, ZimbabweShona people build the largest pre-colonial stone structure in Africa without mortar.
ScienceComposition of the Mitakshara Law Codec. 1100 CE · Kalyan (modern Karnataka/India)Vijnaneshwara writes the Mitakshara, a seminal commentary on Hindu law that influences legal systems across India.
architectureConstruction of Angkor Wat Beginsc. 1113 CE · Angkor, CambodiaKing Suryavarman II begins building Angkor Wat as a Hindu temple complex dedicated to Vishnu.
tradePeak of the Maritime Silk Road under Song Dynastyc. 1127 CE · Hankou, ChinaThe Song Dynasty establishes a global maritime trade network connecting China to East Africa.
WarHogen Rebellion1156 CE · Kyoto, JapanCivil war between rival imperial factions leads to the rise of samurai power.
ReligionJayavarman VII Converts to Mahayana Buddhism1181 CE · Angkor Thom, CambodiaJayavarman VII adopts Mahayana Buddhism and builds Bayon.
WarGhurid Conquest of Delhic. 1192 CE · Delhi, IndiaMuhammad of Ghor defeats Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain, establishing Muslim rule over North India.
ArtConstruction of Qutub Minar Beginsc. 1199 CE · Delhi, IndiaQutb-ud-din Aibak begins construction of the Qutub Minar, a victory tower symbolizing the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
CivilizationRise of Swahili City-States on the East African Coastc. 1200 CE · Kilwa Kisiwani, TanzaniaSwahili city-states flourish as cosmopolitan hubs of Indian Ocean trade, blending African and Islamic cultures.
TechnologyStandardization of the Quipu System in the Andesc. 1200 CE · Cusco Region, PeruInca and pre-Inca cultures refine the quipu for complex numerical and narrative data storage.
ScienceMaya Astronomical Tables in the Dresden Codexc. 1200 CE · Yucatán Peninsula, MexicoMaya astronomers record precise calculations for Venus cycles and eclipses.
PoliticsFounding of the Delhi Sultanate by Qutb-ud-din Aibakc. 1206 CE · Delhi (modern India)Qutb-ud-din Aibak declares independence from the Ghurids and establishes the first Muslim Sultanate in India.
PoliticsSigning of Magna CartaJune 15, 1215 CE · Runnymede, EnglandKing John agrees to limit royal power establishing rule of law principles.
WarMongol Invasion of Khwarezmiac. 1219 CE · Urgench, Khwarazm (modern Uzbekistan/Turkmenistan)Genghis Khan launches a massive invasion of the Khwarezmian Empire, destroying its cities and ending Persian dominance in Central Asia.
WarMongol Destruction of the Khwarazmian Empirec. 1220 CE · Samarkand/Urgench, Central AsiaGenghis Khan's armies devastate the Khwarazmian Empire, razing cities and altering the demographic map of Central Asia.
WarMongol Invasion of Goryeo Begins1231 CE · Seoul (Kaesong), KoreaMongol forces under Sartai invade Goryeo, initiating decades of conflict.
WarMongol Invasion of the Delhi Sultanatec. 1241 CE · Lahore (modern Pakistan)Mongol forces under Tarmashirin invade the Punjab and sack Lahore, testing the defenses of the Delhi Sultanate.
tradeFormation of the Hanseatic Leaguec. 1241 CE · Lübeck, GermanyNorthern German merchants form a powerful commercial and defensive alliance.
PoliticsKublai Khan Establishes Yuan Dynasty1271 CE · Dadu (Beijing), ChinaKublai Khan declares the Yuan Dynasty, unifying China under Mongol rule.
ExplorationPolynesian Settlement of New Zealand (Aotearoa)c. 1280 CE · Canterbury, New Zealand (South Island)Polynesian navigators arrive in New Zealand, founding the Māori culture and adapting to a temperate environment.
ExplorationPolynesian Voyaging to New Zealandc. 1280 CE · South Island, New ZealandPolynesian navigators arrive in Aotearoa using double-hulled canoes and celestial navigation.
WarMongol Invasion of Japan (Kamikaze)1281 CE · Hakata Bay (Fukuoka), JapanA typhoon destroys the second Mongol invasion fleet.
PoliticsFoundation of the Khalji Dynastyc. 1290 CE · Delhi, IndiaJalal-ud-din Khalji overthrows the Mamluk dynasty, establishing the first Afghan-dominated Sultanate in Delhi.
ExplorationPeak of the Silk Road Trade via Central Asiac. 1300 CE · Samarkand (modern Uzbekistan)The Silk Road reaches a peak of connectivity under the Mongol Pax Mongolica, facilitating trade between China and Europe.
ArtCreation of the Goryeo Buddhist Paintingsc. 1300 CE · Korea (Goryeo Dynasty)Court artists create intricate paintings of Amitabha Buddha for royal rituals.
CivilizationMansa Musa's Control of Trans-Saharan Gold Tradec. 1307 CE · Niani, Mali Empire (Guinea/Mali border)Mansa Musa consolidates the Mali Empire's control over West African gold mines and trans-Saharan trade routes.
PoliticsGhiyas-ud-din Tughlaq Founding of Tughlaqabadc. 1320 CE · Delhi, IndiaGhiyas-ud-din Tughlaq usurps the throne and founds the massive fortified city of Tughlaqabad to secure his dynasty's power.
CivilizationMansa Musa Pilgrimage to Mecca1324 CE · Timbuktu, MaliMali Empire ruler travels with immense wealth, destabilizing economies along his route to Mecca.
tradeMansa Musa's Pilgrimage and Gold Economy1324 CE · Cairo, Egypt (en route)Mansa Musa's pilgrimage disrupts gold markets in Cairo with massive displays of wealth.
CivilizationFounding of Tenochtitlan1325 CE · Mexico City, MexicoAztecs build a magnificent island city on Lake Texcoco that becomes the largest in the Americas.
PoliticsMuhammad bin Tughlaq Moves Capital to Daulatabadc. 1327 CE · Daulatabad, Maharashtra, IndiaIn a controversial move, Muhammad bin Tughlaq forces the migration of Delhi's population to Daulatabad to better control southern territories.
literatureProduction of the Shahnama Manuscriptc. 1330 CE · Tabriz, IranIllustrated copies of the Persian national epic are commissioned by the Ilkhanids.
DisasterOutbreak of the Black DeathOctober 1347 CE · Genoa, ItalyPlague arrives in Europe killing a third of the population and reshaping society.
PoliticsFounding of the Bahmani Sultanatec. 1347 CE · Gulbarga, Karnataka, IndiaAla-ud-Din Bahman declares independence from the Delhi Sultanate, establishing the first major Muslim kingdom in the Deccan.
WarBattle of Siem Reap (Khmer-Siamese War)1352 CE · Siem Reap, CambodiaSiam attacks Angkor, leading to the eventual decline of the Khmer Empire.
WarRise of Timur (Tamerlane) and Conquest of Delhi1398 CE · Delhi, IndiaTimur invades the Delhi Sultanate, sacking the city and temporarily ending Mamluk rule in Northern India.
WarTimur's Sack of Delhic. 1398 CE · Delhi, IndiaTimur (Tamerlane) invades the Delhi Sultanate, defeating the Tughlaqs and massacring the city's population before retreating.
ExplorationZheng He's First Voyage BeginsJuly 11, 1405 CE · Nanjing, ChinaChinese admiral leads massive fleet to Southeast Asia and Africa projecting Ming power.
WarMing Conquest of Dai Viet (Fourth Era)1407 CE · Hanoi (Thang Long), VietnamMing forces capture the Ho Dynasty and annex Vietnam.
WarLe Dynasty Restoration (Lam Son Uprising)1418 CE · Lam Son (Thanh Hoa, Vietnam)Le Loi initiates the Lam Son Uprising against Ming occupation.
TechnologyExpansion of Aztec Chinampa Agriculturec. 1420 CE · Lake Xochimilco, Mexico CityThe Aztecs expand the chinampa system to feed Tenochtitlan's massive population with highly productive artificial islands.
WarMing Occupation of Vietnam Ends1427 CE · Dong Da (Hanoi), VietnamLe Loi defeats the Ming army at Dong Da, ending occupation.
PoliticsLe Loi Crowned Emperor of Dai Viet1428 CE · Hanoi (Thang Long), VietnamLe Loi is crowned Le Thai To, founding the Later Le Dynasty.
WarFall of Angkor Thom to Ayutthaya1431 CE · Angkor Thom, CambodiaAyutthaya forces sack Angkor Thom, leading to the empire's relocation.
CivilizationConstruction of the Inca Road System (Qhapaq Ñan)c. 1438 CE · Cusco, Peru (Expansion Phase)Pachacuti initiates the expansion of the Qhapaq Ñan, a vast road network connecting the Inca Empire across the Andes.
CivilizationUse of Quipu for Inca Record Keepingc. 1450 CE · Cusco, PeruInca administrators use knotted strings to record census and tax data.
WarFall of ConstantinopleMay 29, 1453 · Constantinople (Istanbul), TurkeyOttoman Turks conquer the Byzantine capital, ending the Roman Empire.
TechnologyPrinting of the Gutenberg Biblec. 1455 CE · Mainz, GermanyJohannes Gutenberg prints the first major book using movable type.
ReligionKingdom of Kongo Adopts Catholicism1491 CE · Mbanza Kongo, AngolaKing Nzinga a Nkuwu converts to Catholicism and takes the name João I, integrating Christianity into Kongo society.
ExplorationColumbus Reaches the AmericasOctober 12, 1492 CE · San Salvador, BahamasEuropean explorer lands in Caribbean initiating permanent contact between Old and New Worlds.
ExplorationVasco da Gama Reaches India via Sea RouteMay 20, 1498 · Kozhikode (Calicut), IndiaPortuguese explorer Vasco da Gama arrives in India, bypassing Ottoman land routes.
ReligionFounding of Sikhism by Guru Nanakc. 1499 CE · Nankana Sahib, PakistanGuru Nanak proclaims unity of God and equality of all humans in Punjab.